Update (10/25/20): I have divided this post into two sections: "Were Adam and Eve Real People?," where I discuss if there is any scientific evidence for only two Homo sapiens bringing about the modern-day human race, and, "Fictional Representatives for Mankind?," where I discuss the definitions of "Adam" and "Eve" and discuss whether or not these two people are allegories or metaphors for the entire human race.
Were Adam and Eve Real People?:
In Genesis chapters 1-2, these are the first two people ever created. Of course, like Jesus Christ, most people believe that Adam and Eve never existed. I myself had a hard time trying to find a way to search for these two individuals to see if they were real, and was considering the idea of Adam and Eve as being only symbolic individuals for the human race. Then, I found an unlikely way to track them down: DNA.
1. "Mitochondrial Eve":
Mitochondria:
Photo from Megan Knight (Retrieved on 2019).
Mitochondria, according to Megan Knight (Retrieved on 2019), are:
"...double membrane bound cytoplasmic organelles present in most eukaryotic cells. They are responsible for aerobic respiration, producing energy for the cell, which they achieve through oxidative phosphorylation.
Cellular respiration is the metabolic process in which oxygen is used to breakdown carbohydrates, fats and proteins to generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Mitochondria are the ‘engine room’ of eukaryotic organisms, as they are the main site of cellular respiration," (p. 1-2).
Basically... Mitochondria takes nutrients from oxygen and turns it into energy for cells. A month ago, I learned about the "Mitochondrial Eve." According to Rebecca L. Cann et al., (1987), the mitochondrial DNA from 147 people from different nationalities, not including Africa, point to one woman that seems to have lived in Africa about 200,000 years ago (Abstract). This is backed up by Ann Gibson (1997) (Y Chromosome Shows that Adam was African, "Abstract") and Chan et al., (2019) ("Abstract") (165-240,000 years ago at maximum). This is interesting because some fossil remains of modern human beings were dated back to 195,000 years ago in Ethiopia, according to the University of Utah (2005) and Michael Hopkin (2005). I guess you could say that this very first woman that lived 200,000 years ago is Eve. Therefore, Eve appeared 200,000 years ago in Africa, probably Ethiopia, to be more specific.
So now we have Eve. How are we going to find Adam? The same way, but not with mitochondria. This is where the Y chromosome comes into play.
2. "Chromosomal Adam":
Y Chromosome:
Photo from Dr. Zara Kassam (2018).
According to the Genetics Home Reference website in 2019, males have one Y and one X chromosome, while females have two X chromosomes (p. 2). The first modern human male that inherited the first Y chromosome is called "Chromosomal Adam." Cruciani et al., (2011) gave a time frame of 142,000 years ago after studying 2,204 African DNA samples ("Abstract" and pg. 6). According to two papers published at the same time in 2013, Chromosomal Adam appeared around 120-200,000 years ago. G. David Poznik et al., (2013) and Paolo Francalacci et al., (2013) examined the Y chromosomes of 69 different men from different nationalities. Poznik et al., (2013) said that the first modern human male appeared around 120-156,000 years ago, and the first modern female human appeared 99-148,000 years ago. However, Francalacci et al., (2013) said that the first modern human male appeared 180-200,000 years ago, the same time period that Cann et al., (1987) gave to the "Mitochondrial Eve."
Before all of those papers, however, Ann Gibson (1997) said that Chromosomal Adam lived during the same place and time as Mitochondrial Eve (Y Chromosome Shows that Adam was African, "Abstract"). Therefore, the first modern human male, let's say he's Adam, appeared during the same time as Eve, and more than likely lived in Africa too, perhaps Ethiopia.
Note: Fernando L. Mendez et al., (2013) gave 338,000 years for Chromosomal Adam, but their results included archaic human DNA. According to Christopher J. Bae (2013), archaic humans lived earlier than modern human beings. Therefore, modern human beings appeared 200,000 years ago. In 2017, some remains discovered in Morocco are said to have been Homo sapiens that are 300,000 years old. However, they lack some features that modern human beings have, so they seem to be archaic/early modern humans and not modern human beings (Ewen Callaway, 2017, "Genomic evidence") (Michael Greshko, 2017, final p.). Chris Stringer (2016) says that this skull, called the Jebel Irhoud skull, is not a modern human being (Pg. 5). Also, Elhaik et al., (2014), who gave Chromosomal Adam a time frame of 208,300 years ago (163,900-260,200 years ago at maximum) ("Abstract").
3. Update (3/24/20): Adam's and Eve's Origins and Families:
Chan et al., (2019) says that Mitochondrial Eve appeared in Southern Africa, south of the Zambezi river, 200,000 years ago ("Abstract"). This place is called Makgadikgadi, a salt flat (Brandon Specktor, 2019) that is in Botswana (The Economist, 2019). However, it appears that Adam and Eve didn't originate from the same place. It is said that modern human women came from South Africa, while men came from West Africa (Specktor, 2019). Interestingly, Ann Gibson (1997) said that the descendants of Chromosomal Adam spread into different geographical regions from where the descendants of Mitochondrial Eve went (The Women's Movement, "Abstract"). This doesn't mean that Adam and Eve didn't live in the same time and place though (Y Chromosome Shows that Adam was African, "Abstract"). So what's going on here? Did Adam and Eve live together but their children spread into different places? Did they never meet at all? Or where they born from different parents but found each other and mated?
As far as location goes, The Economist (2019) and Chan et al., (2019) says that Eve originated in Botswana in Southern Africa, but Cruciani et al., (2011) ("Abstract" and pg. 6), Mendez et al., (2013) ("Abstract"), and Specktor (2019) says that Adam originated in Central, Central and Northwest (Northern and Western), or Western Africa (check maps in "Links"). Does this mean that Adam and Eve never met? Well first, going by the genetic data, this would be a no. If they never met, then we wouldn't have originated from them in the first place. Second, Adam and Eve could have just left their families when they matured and then found each other. For an example of this, let's look at our distant relatives: gorillas. According to Primate Info Net, male and female gorillas leave their families. Females leave to avoid inbreeding. Males either stay in their family and may breed with new females that enter their group, or they leave to start their own families ("Social Organization and Behavior," p. 2). The Smithsonian National Zoo says that offspring, when they mature, typically leave to find their own mates ("Western Lowland Gorilla," "Social Structure," p. 3-4). Either one of these possibilities could have happened to Adam and Eve, but perhaps it was more likely that Adam and Eve both left their families, found each other and then started their own family.
That being said, since Adam and Eve were Homo sapiens, what species of Homo were Adam and Eve's parents/families? Where they modern human beings like them, or early-modern human beings? Since Adam and Eve originated 200,000 years ago at best, based on the datings of the genetic evidence and stated by Carly Cassella (2020) (P. 12), that means that their parents and families lived before that (of course). This means that they must have been early/archaic modern human beings. Early modern human beings appeared 640,000 years ago, and are as recent as 120,000 years ago (Christopher J. Bae, 2013, p. 3) (Ewen Callaway, 2017, "Genomic evidence") (Michael Greshko, 2017, final p.). Therefore, it seems that Adam and Eve's parents were archaic, but Adam and Eve evolved into modern human beings. When they left their families and met each other, they helped to start the rise of modern human beings.
As for the species, it seems that Eve's parents' species were either Homo heidelbergensis or Homo erectus. According to the Smithsonian Museum of Natural History, H. heidelbergensis lived 700-200,000 years ago in Eastern and Southern Africa, Europe, and possibly Asia. H. erectus lived 1.9 million-110,000 years ago in Northern, Eastern and Southern Africa, and Western and East Asia. However, Encyclopaedia Britannica says that H. erectus only lived in Africa up until 700,000 years ago ("African Finds"). They lived in Java up until 117-108,000 years ago only (Rizal et al., 2019, "Abstract"). It seems that Homo erectus is the ancestor of Homo heidelbergensis. Therefore, Eve's parents were probably Homo heidelbergensis. Is this true for Adam though? At first it didn't seem likely, but remember the Jebel Irhoud skull? It came from Morocco in Northern Africa, is 315-286,000 years old (Richter et al., 2017, "Abstract") (Hublin et al., 2017, "Abstract"), and is an archaic human skull with some modern human characteristics (Stringer, 2016, pg. 5). Is it H. heidelbergensis though? According to the Smithsonian Museum of Natural History, the H. heidelbergensis skull called Kabwe 1 has Homo erectus and Homo sapien features ("Kabwe 1"). The Jebel Irhoud skull, and another skull from Sale, near Rabat, Morocco, have the same characteristics. The Sale skull is 400,000 years old (Encyclopaedia Britannica, "Sale"). Therefore, the Jebel Irhoud and Sale skulls seem to belong to Homo heidelbergensis. Since Homo heidelbergensis lived in Eastern, Southern, and now Northern Africa, it seems that it was the archaic parents of both Adam and Eve.
Genetic research also shows that a "ghost" species of hominin existed around 1 million-146,000 years ago in Western Africa (Shawna Williams, 2020) (Carly Cassella, 2020) (Durvasula and Sankararaman, 2020, "Abstract"). It has been hypothesized that the "ghost" species is either Homo erectus or Homo heidelbergensis (Ann Gibbons, 2020) (Bethan Ackerley, 2020). Given to long distance of time, and that Homo erectus left Africa 700,000 years ago, it seems that Homo heidelbergensis might be the "ghost" species. This could possibly stretch H. heidelbergensis' population to South, East, North, and Western Africa. So until further notice, I will consider Homo heidelbergensis as Adam's and Eve's archaic modern human parents. Interestingly, Homo heidelbergensis not only gave rise to Homo sapiens, but Homo neanderthalensis in Europe and Asia (Smithsonian Museum of Natural History, "Homo neanderthalensis") (Encyclopaedia Britannica, "Homo heidelbergensis") (Mounier et al., 2009, "Abstract") (Stringer, 2016, pg. 13, Figure 2).
Note: Mounier (2009) says that H. heidelbergensis might've also just given rise to H. neanderthalensis ("Abstract"). Stringer (2016) says that H. heidelbergensis might've been our, and H. neanderthalensis', ancestors, or perhaps another hominin (he calls "Ancestor X") gave rise to H. heidelbergensis, sapiens, and neanderthalensis (Figure 2). Despite this, they still suggest that H. heidelbergensis might've been the ancestor of H. sapiens and neanderthalensis.
What's interesting is that fewer Y-Chromosomal lineages survived than the Mitochondrial lineages (Mary Bechman, 2000, pg. 4) (Ewen Calloway, 2013, pg. 2). Usually, only one son would survive (Ewen Calloway, 2013, pg. 2). This seems to support why female genetic variation was much more abundant than in males, as stated by Gibson (1997) (The Women's Movement, "Abstract"). Chapter 4 and 5 of Genesis describes Adam and Eve having children. Two of them were Cain and Abel. Cain killing Abel might not have helped the spreading of the Y-Chromosome either. However, according to genealogy in Chapter 5, Seth went on to continue Adam's lineage.
Update (4/3/20): Different species of hominids seem to have lived with each other, not just co-exist. Three different genus of hominids lived in the same place in Africa 2 million years ago: Australopithecus, Paranthropus, and Homo erectus (Brian Handwerk, 2020) (Herries et al., 2020, "Abstract"). However, two skulls belonging to Paranthropus and Homo erectus were discovered in a cave together in South Africa (Herries et al., 2020, "Abstract"). This seems to suggest that, possibly, all three genus of hominids during that time interacted with one another (Handwerk, 2020). Therefore, despite originating from different regions in Africa, the possibilities of Adam and Eve finding each other 200,000 years ago seems even more possible now.
4. Update (4/8/20-4/12/20): Mathematical Possibilities:
It seems mathematically possible that just two Homo sapiens could create our present population. In fact, this was proposed a long time ago. Rohde et al., (2004) says that the most recent common ancestor, an ancestor that helped to spread the modern-human population only and whom we all descend from, lived just a few thousand years ago. They also say that the ancestors of this individual are the same ancestors of all of us ("Abstract"). The most recent common ancestor is said to have lived about 3,000 years ago, while their ancestors (and ours) lived several thousand years ago (ScienceDaily, 2004, p. 5). I would say about 200,000 years ago. Also, judging by how many people were around as far back as 20,000 B.C. (Rohde et al., 2004, Supplementary Materials, "Supplementary Table 1"; pg. 7 p. 2; "Supplementary Figure 1"), it doesn't sound so difficult for only two individuals to spread our species.
Recently, Ann Gauger (2019), and Hossjer and Gauger (2019), say that this is possible as well. Both say that, if the first couple evolved from other hominids, then the time frame in which only they could populate the Earth would take 2 million years ("no primordial diversity"). However, if the first couple were primordial, or were created (by God), then it would take 500,000 years (Hossjer and Gauger, 2019, pg. 11, "Discussion" p. 2) (Gauger, 2019, "The Fun Begins" p. 16) (Stonestreet and Morris, 2019, p. 8). If 2 million years is correct, then the first couple would be Homo erectus. If it took 500,000 years, then they could be Homo neanderthalensis or Denisovans (Gauger, 2019, "The Take Home" p. 1). Hossjer and Gauger (2019) also say that, with more tweaks to their "parsimonious model assumptions," the first couple living 100,000 years ago seems possible ("Abstract"; pg. 12, "Discussion," "Extensions of the Single Couple Origin Model" p. 4) (Stonestreet and Morris, 2019, p. 9).
Combine that with the info. about Homo sapiens mating, and even living, with other species of Homo (and hominids) at the time, then I think that it is highly possible now that only two Homo sapiens could produce our current modern human population, given that they would have had help with other Homo species.
1. "Mitochondrial Eve":
Mitochondria:
Mitochondria, according to Megan Knight (Retrieved on 2019), are:
"...double membrane bound cytoplasmic organelles present in most eukaryotic cells. They are responsible for aerobic respiration, producing energy for the cell, which they achieve through oxidative phosphorylation.
Cellular respiration is the metabolic process in which oxygen is used to breakdown carbohydrates, fats and proteins to generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Mitochondria are the ‘engine room’ of eukaryotic organisms, as they are the main site of cellular respiration," (p. 1-2).
Basically... Mitochondria takes nutrients from oxygen and turns it into energy for cells. A month ago, I learned about the "Mitochondrial Eve." According to Rebecca L. Cann et al., (1987), the mitochondrial DNA from 147 people from different nationalities, not including Africa, point to one woman that seems to have lived in Africa about 200,000 years ago (Abstract). This is backed up by Ann Gibson (1997) (Y Chromosome Shows that Adam was African, "Abstract") and Chan et al., (2019) ("Abstract") (165-240,000 years ago at maximum). This is interesting because some fossil remains of modern human beings were dated back to 195,000 years ago in Ethiopia, according to the University of Utah (2005) and Michael Hopkin (2005). I guess you could say that this very first woman that lived 200,000 years ago is Eve. Therefore, Eve appeared 200,000 years ago in Africa, probably Ethiopia, to be more specific.
So now we have Eve. How are we going to find Adam? The same way, but not with mitochondria. This is where the Y chromosome comes into play.
2. "Chromosomal Adam":
Y Chromosome:
According to the Genetics Home Reference website in 2019, males have one Y and one X chromosome, while females have two X chromosomes (p. 2). The first modern human male that inherited the first Y chromosome is called "Chromosomal Adam." Cruciani et al., (2011) gave a time frame of 142,000 years ago after studying 2,204 African DNA samples ("Abstract" and pg. 6). According to two papers published at the same time in 2013, Chromosomal Adam appeared around 120-200,000 years ago. G. David Poznik et al., (2013) and Paolo Francalacci et al., (2013) examined the Y chromosomes of 69 different men from different nationalities. Poznik et al., (2013) said that the first modern human male appeared around 120-156,000 years ago, and the first modern female human appeared 99-148,000 years ago. However, Francalacci et al., (2013) said that the first modern human male appeared 180-200,000 years ago, the same time period that Cann et al., (1987) gave to the "Mitochondrial Eve."
Before all of those papers, however, Ann Gibson (1997) said that Chromosomal Adam lived during the same place and time as Mitochondrial Eve (Y Chromosome Shows that Adam was African, "Abstract"). Therefore, the first modern human male, let's say he's Adam, appeared during the same time as Eve, and more than likely lived in Africa too, perhaps Ethiopia.
Note: Fernando L. Mendez et al., (2013) gave 338,000 years for Chromosomal Adam, but their results included archaic human DNA. According to Christopher J. Bae (2013), archaic humans lived earlier than modern human beings. Therefore, modern human beings appeared 200,000 years ago. In 2017, some remains discovered in Morocco are said to have been Homo sapiens that are 300,000 years old. However, they lack some features that modern human beings have, so they seem to be archaic/early modern humans and not modern human beings (Ewen Callaway, 2017, "Genomic evidence") (Michael Greshko, 2017, final p.). Chris Stringer (2016) says that this skull, called the Jebel Irhoud skull, is not a modern human being (Pg. 5). Also, Elhaik et al., (2014), who gave Chromosomal Adam a time frame of 208,300 years ago (163,900-260,200 years ago at maximum) ("Abstract").
3. Update (3/24/20): Adam's and Eve's Origins and Families:
Chan et al., (2019) says that Mitochondrial Eve appeared in Southern Africa, south of the Zambezi river, 200,000 years ago ("Abstract"). This place is called Makgadikgadi, a salt flat (Brandon Specktor, 2019) that is in Botswana (The Economist, 2019). However, it appears that Adam and Eve didn't originate from the same place. It is said that modern human women came from South Africa, while men came from West Africa (Specktor, 2019). Interestingly, Ann Gibson (1997) said that the descendants of Chromosomal Adam spread into different geographical regions from where the descendants of Mitochondrial Eve went (The Women's Movement, "Abstract"). This doesn't mean that Adam and Eve didn't live in the same time and place though (Y Chromosome Shows that Adam was African, "Abstract"). So what's going on here? Did Adam and Eve live together but their children spread into different places? Did they never meet at all? Or where they born from different parents but found each other and mated?
As far as location goes, The Economist (2019) and Chan et al., (2019) says that Eve originated in Botswana in Southern Africa, but Cruciani et al., (2011) ("Abstract" and pg. 6), Mendez et al., (2013) ("Abstract"), and Specktor (2019) says that Adam originated in Central, Central and Northwest (Northern and Western), or Western Africa (check maps in "Links"). Does this mean that Adam and Eve never met? Well first, going by the genetic data, this would be a no. If they never met, then we wouldn't have originated from them in the first place. Second, Adam and Eve could have just left their families when they matured and then found each other. For an example of this, let's look at our distant relatives: gorillas. According to Primate Info Net, male and female gorillas leave their families. Females leave to avoid inbreeding. Males either stay in their family and may breed with new females that enter their group, or they leave to start their own families ("Social Organization and Behavior," p. 2). The Smithsonian National Zoo says that offspring, when they mature, typically leave to find their own mates ("Western Lowland Gorilla," "Social Structure," p. 3-4). Either one of these possibilities could have happened to Adam and Eve, but perhaps it was more likely that Adam and Eve both left their families, found each other and then started their own family.
That being said, since Adam and Eve were Homo sapiens, what species of Homo were Adam and Eve's parents/families? Where they modern human beings like them, or early-modern human beings? Since Adam and Eve originated 200,000 years ago at best, based on the datings of the genetic evidence and stated by Carly Cassella (2020) (P. 12), that means that their parents and families lived before that (of course). This means that they must have been early/archaic modern human beings. Early modern human beings appeared 640,000 years ago, and are as recent as 120,000 years ago (Christopher J. Bae, 2013, p. 3) (Ewen Callaway, 2017, "Genomic evidence") (Michael Greshko, 2017, final p.). Therefore, it seems that Adam and Eve's parents were archaic, but Adam and Eve evolved into modern human beings. When they left their families and met each other, they helped to start the rise of modern human beings.
As for the species, it seems that Eve's parents' species were either Homo heidelbergensis or Homo erectus. According to the Smithsonian Museum of Natural History, H. heidelbergensis lived 700-200,000 years ago in Eastern and Southern Africa, Europe, and possibly Asia. H. erectus lived 1.9 million-110,000 years ago in Northern, Eastern and Southern Africa, and Western and East Asia. However, Encyclopaedia Britannica says that H. erectus only lived in Africa up until 700,000 years ago ("African Finds"). They lived in Java up until 117-108,000 years ago only (Rizal et al., 2019, "Abstract"). It seems that Homo erectus is the ancestor of Homo heidelbergensis. Therefore, Eve's parents were probably Homo heidelbergensis. Is this true for Adam though? At first it didn't seem likely, but remember the Jebel Irhoud skull? It came from Morocco in Northern Africa, is 315-286,000 years old (Richter et al., 2017, "Abstract") (Hublin et al., 2017, "Abstract"), and is an archaic human skull with some modern human characteristics (Stringer, 2016, pg. 5). Is it H. heidelbergensis though? According to the Smithsonian Museum of Natural History, the H. heidelbergensis skull called Kabwe 1 has Homo erectus and Homo sapien features ("Kabwe 1"). The Jebel Irhoud skull, and another skull from Sale, near Rabat, Morocco, have the same characteristics. The Sale skull is 400,000 years old (Encyclopaedia Britannica, "Sale"). Therefore, the Jebel Irhoud and Sale skulls seem to belong to Homo heidelbergensis. Since Homo heidelbergensis lived in Eastern, Southern, and now Northern Africa, it seems that it was the archaic parents of both Adam and Eve.
Genetic research also shows that a "ghost" species of hominin existed around 1 million-146,000 years ago in Western Africa (Shawna Williams, 2020) (Carly Cassella, 2020) (Durvasula and Sankararaman, 2020, "Abstract"). It has been hypothesized that the "ghost" species is either Homo erectus or Homo heidelbergensis (Ann Gibbons, 2020) (Bethan Ackerley, 2020). Given to long distance of time, and that Homo erectus left Africa 700,000 years ago, it seems that Homo heidelbergensis might be the "ghost" species. This could possibly stretch H. heidelbergensis' population to South, East, North, and Western Africa. So until further notice, I will consider Homo heidelbergensis as Adam's and Eve's archaic modern human parents. Interestingly, Homo heidelbergensis not only gave rise to Homo sapiens, but Homo neanderthalensis in Europe and Asia (Smithsonian Museum of Natural History, "Homo neanderthalensis") (Encyclopaedia Britannica, "Homo heidelbergensis") (Mounier et al., 2009, "Abstract") (Stringer, 2016, pg. 13, Figure 2).
Note: Mounier (2009) says that H. heidelbergensis might've also just given rise to H. neanderthalensis ("Abstract"). Stringer (2016) says that H. heidelbergensis might've been our, and H. neanderthalensis', ancestors, or perhaps another hominin (he calls "Ancestor X") gave rise to H. heidelbergensis, sapiens, and neanderthalensis (Figure 2). Despite this, they still suggest that H. heidelbergensis might've been the ancestor of H. sapiens and neanderthalensis.
What's interesting is that fewer Y-Chromosomal lineages survived than the Mitochondrial lineages (Mary Bechman, 2000, pg. 4) (Ewen Calloway, 2013, pg. 2). Usually, only one son would survive (Ewen Calloway, 2013, pg. 2). This seems to support why female genetic variation was much more abundant than in males, as stated by Gibson (1997) (The Women's Movement, "Abstract"). Chapter 4 and 5 of Genesis describes Adam and Eve having children. Two of them were Cain and Abel. Cain killing Abel might not have helped the spreading of the Y-Chromosome either. However, according to genealogy in Chapter 5, Seth went on to continue Adam's lineage.
Update (4/3/20): Different species of hominids seem to have lived with each other, not just co-exist. Three different genus of hominids lived in the same place in Africa 2 million years ago: Australopithecus, Paranthropus, and Homo erectus (Brian Handwerk, 2020) (Herries et al., 2020, "Abstract"). However, two skulls belonging to Paranthropus and Homo erectus were discovered in a cave together in South Africa (Herries et al., 2020, "Abstract"). This seems to suggest that, possibly, all three genus of hominids during that time interacted with one another (Handwerk, 2020). Therefore, despite originating from different regions in Africa, the possibilities of Adam and Eve finding each other 200,000 years ago seems even more possible now.
4. Update (4/8/20-4/12/20): Mathematical Possibilities:
It seems mathematically possible that just two Homo sapiens could create our present population. In fact, this was proposed a long time ago. Rohde et al., (2004) says that the most recent common ancestor, an ancestor that helped to spread the modern-human population only and whom we all descend from, lived just a few thousand years ago. They also say that the ancestors of this individual are the same ancestors of all of us ("Abstract"). The most recent common ancestor is said to have lived about 3,000 years ago, while their ancestors (and ours) lived several thousand years ago (ScienceDaily, 2004, p. 5). I would say about 200,000 years ago. Also, judging by how many people were around as far back as 20,000 B.C. (Rohde et al., 2004, Supplementary Materials, "Supplementary Table 1"; pg. 7 p. 2; "Supplementary Figure 1"), it doesn't sound so difficult for only two individuals to spread our species.
Recently, Ann Gauger (2019), and Hossjer and Gauger (2019), say that this is possible as well. Both say that, if the first couple evolved from other hominids, then the time frame in which only they could populate the Earth would take 2 million years ("no primordial diversity"). However, if the first couple were primordial, or were created (by God), then it would take 500,000 years (Hossjer and Gauger, 2019, pg. 11, "Discussion" p. 2) (Gauger, 2019, "The Fun Begins" p. 16) (Stonestreet and Morris, 2019, p. 8). If 2 million years is correct, then the first couple would be Homo erectus. If it took 500,000 years, then they could be Homo neanderthalensis or Denisovans (Gauger, 2019, "The Take Home" p. 1). Hossjer and Gauger (2019) also say that, with more tweaks to their "parsimonious model assumptions," the first couple living 100,000 years ago seems possible ("Abstract"; pg. 12, "Discussion," "Extensions of the Single Couple Origin Model" p. 4) (Stonestreet and Morris, 2019, p. 9).
Combine that with the info. about Homo sapiens mating, and even living, with other species of Homo (and hominids) at the time, then I think that it is highly possible now that only two Homo sapiens could produce our current modern human population, given that they would have had help with other Homo species.
Fictional Representatives for Mankind?:
I decided to look up the translations of the words "Adam" and "Eve." Both words have different Hebrew and Greek translations. According to Bible Hub, in Hebrew, "Adam," or "adam," means man and mankind ("Strong's Hebrew: 120. adam"). However, Bible Hub says that, in Greek, "Adam" is referred to the very first human male ("Strong's Greek: 121. Adam"). Bible Texts says that Adam can be spelled "adham," and that it can represent a single man, or mankind (human race) as a whole. However, Adam seems to have been the name given to the first man in Genesis 2 ("the Hebrew word adam - man, human beings, or Adam? as used in both Gen 1 & Gen 2, and as translated as: man, human beings, person, or Adam." “Hebrew Dictionary Definitions of the Hebrew word adam.” "adam-Bible dictionaries"). It seems that the word Adam originally meant to encompass the whole human race, but for the story of Genesis 2, it was given to a single figure.
I decided to look up the translations of the words "Adam" and "Eve." Both words have different Hebrew and Greek translations. According to Bible Hub, in Hebrew, "Adam," or "adam," means man and mankind ("Strong's Hebrew: 120. adam"). However, Bible Hub says that, in Greek, "Adam" is referred to the very first human male ("Strong's Greek: 121. Adam"). Bible Texts says that Adam can be spelled "adham," and that it can represent a single man, or mankind (human race) as a whole. However, Adam seems to have been the name given to the first man in Genesis 2 ("the Hebrew word adam - man, human beings, or Adam? as used in both Gen 1 & Gen 2, and as translated as: man, human beings, person, or Adam." “Hebrew Dictionary Definitions of the Hebrew word adam.” "adam-Bible dictionaries"). It seems that the word Adam originally meant to encompass the whole human race, but for the story of Genesis 2, it was given to a single figure.
What about "Eve?" Once again, Bible Hub says that, in Greek, "Eve" is actually "Heua," and it is referred to the very first human female ("Strong's Greek: 20296. Heua"). In Hebrew, it's a different story. Dr. Eli Lizorkin-Eyzenberg says that Eve's original Hebrew name is "chava" (or "Chava"), and it is suppose to "communicate the idea of life" ("What Does Eve Mean in Hebrew?" p. 1). A Rabbi from Aish.com says the same thing ("Ask the Rabbi," "Eve's Name"). So "Adam" means man or mankind (I'm going with mankind), and "Eve" has to do with life. I'm assuming that this has something to do with procreation, given what is said in Genesis 1:28 and 2:23-24. Mankind mates and has children, thus creating life.
So with this in mind, does this mean that "Adam" and "Eve" are actually symbolic figures for the entire human race, and not real people? Perhaps. Even my Bible says that Genesis 1 and 2 are myths (The Catholic Youth Bible (New American Bible Revised Edition), pg. 22 "Did You Know?"). It does make a lot of sense to go with the symbolic route. The "tree of the knowledge of good and evil" (Genesis 2:15-18, 3:2-3) could be symbolic of mankind learning to be, and growing, more sinful (tribal wars, rape, violence amongst themselves, etc.). This can be seen in the archaeological record. However, I will not rule out the possibility of two homo sapiens populating the Earth entirely. As shown above, it's statistically possible, and some DNA evidence can help with this, but I don't want to think that it's conclusive. Future evidence can prove this not to be the case. I would say that this hypothesis is a safe one to go with. The "real life" Adam and Eve will have to be taken with a grain of salt.
Conclusions:
It wouldn't be right to go with a single conclusion, so I'm going to divide it:
Conclusion 1: According to DNA tests, the first modern human couple that we modern human beings originate from appeared in Africa around 200,000 years ago, according to Cann et al., (1987), Francalacci et al., (2013), Elhaik et al., (2014), and Chan et al., (2019). In Genesis, the first human couple is known as Adam and Eve. Therefore, this seems to prove that Adam and Eve were real people. Not only that, but Africa seems to have been the real Eden (the Garden of Eden was inside Eden, according to Genesis Ch. 2), in particular, possibly Ethiopia (University of Utah, 2005) (Michael Hopkin, 2005). Adam's and Eve's parents were archaic/early modern human beings, probably Homo heidelbergensis (Smithsonian Museum of Natural History, "Homo heidelbergensis") (Encyclopaedia Britannica, "Homo heidelbergensis") (Mounier et al., 2009, "Abstract") (Bethan Ackerley, 2020) (Ann Gibbons, 2020). Like gorillas (Primate Info Net, "Gorilla," "Social Organization and Behavior," p. 2) (Smithsonian National Zoo, "Western Lowland Gorilla," "Social Structure," p. 3-4), Adam and Eve might have left their families when they matured and met each other to start their own. Actually, they could have met, and even lived with, each other long before they mated, as seen in other hominids (Handwerk, 2020) (Herries et al., 2020, "Abstract"). Their descendants would then lead to the rise of modern human beings, and it has been shown mathematically to be plausible (Rohde et al., 2004, "Abstract" and "Supplementary Materials") (Ann Gauger, 2019, "The Fun Begins" and "The Take Home") (Hossjer and Gauger, 2019, "Abstract" and "Discussion" pg. 11-12) (Stonestreet and Morris, 2019, p. 8-9).
Of course, a few questions remain: Was there a tree with fruit in it that God told Adam and Eve not to eat? Did a serpent or snake tell them to eat it? Did God kick them out of Africa/Ethiopia, which helped modern human beings to spread all over the world? I don't have the answers to that, but I don't think we can throw them out and say that they're myths entirely. As I've found out, the Bible is a mysterious book that has historical people and events in it. Who knows what might have happened or not. I think we just have to have an open mind.
Conclusion 2: Based on translations, "Adam" and "Eve" are symbolic figures that represent the human race ("Adam") and procreation/life ("Eve"/"Chava"). "Eating from the tree of knowledge of good and evil" represents mankind growing to become more evil, and committing violent acts that can even be seen in the archaeological record. Therefore, Adam and Eve were not real people, but symbols of mankind breaking away from God.
Conclusion 3: Based on the DNA evidence and Hebrew translations, I think we can combine the two and come up with a third conclusion. DNA evidence points towards the human race descending from two individuals from Africa, but they were born in different locations. When they matured, they migrated from their families and found each other. Their offspring would go on to tell stories about their parents, how reproduction worked ("Adam" and "Eve"/'Chava"), and how Homo sapiens grew to be more intelligent but more hostile to each other, which can be seen in the archaeological record. Therefore, "Adam" and "Eve" were real, but also metaphorical/symbolic, individuals at the same time.
This is probably closer to what the real Adam and Eve would have looked like, if they were real:
Update and Final Conclusion (11/14-12/13/20): Mitochondrial Eve was not the first Homo sapien female. She existed when there were other 10,000 Homo sapiens. Her DNA exists mainly because it is the one that has been carried the most from daughter to daughter, and she is the first individual to have mitochondrial DNA (Andrea Marchiano, 2020, p. 13-14) (Learn, 2016, p. 4-7). Every human being today carries DNA from "other women during Eve's era" as well (David K. Jordan, "'Mitochondrial Eve': III: Lose Ends: B. What Happened to All of Eve's Contemporaries?"). Therefore, my second conclusion is the most realistic one. "Adam" and "Eve"/Chava are representative, or metaphorical, figures ("Adam" represents mankind as a whole, while "Eve"/Chava represents life/procreation), not real people.
I've also come to the conclusion now that Genesis is the story of the Jewish people, not the entire human race. I think that's were I, and a lot of other people, get confused when talking about Genesis, especially about Adam and Eve. Genesis describes, in storybook fashion, the origins of the Jewish people. There is history sprinkled within Genesis, but for the most part, this book within the Bible is the tradition of the Jews. In fact, the Old Testament is about the Jewish people period. "Adam," or mankind, represents the Jewish people and not the entire human race.
In summary, "Adam" represents the Jewish people. "Eve"/Chava represents life (procreation?).
Update (2/7/21): I just saw an awesome BBC documentary called, "Did Darwin Kill God?," hosted by Conor Cunningham. In the documentary, it is explained that "Adam" and "Eve" were characters used to describe "the fallibility of human nature" (7:36-7:48). I've come to the conclusion that "Adam" and "Eve" are fictional characters, but their story and actions are suppose to teach us a lesson: Human beings want to be God, but we end up failing to do so.
As explained above, "Adam" represents mankind, and "Eve"/Chava represents life. Now, I'm going to expand this a bit. I think "Eve"/Chava still encompasses procreation, but it can also means other forms of life as well (wildlife, for example). So "Eve"/Chava means all forms of life, not just people. As for "Adam," I don't think it just means the Jewish people, but human beings in general. Mankind can live in harmony with life and create it, but we can also betray and destroy it (Adam and Eve being close in Genesis 2, but in Genesis 3 Adam betrays Eve). This also includes mankind's relationship with each other. We can either love each other, or hate each other.
In closing, "Adam" and "Eve" are metaphorical figures that represent mankind's ("Adam") relationship with life ("Eve"/Chava) in both positive and negative ways, including with each other.
Update (4/15/21): In order to find the ancestor of all human beings, we'll have to go back to the Maastrichtian age, when dinosaurs like T. rex and Triceratops lived! The ancestor of all primates (including us) is Purgatorius, which lived in North America alongside T. rex. This small mammal is our ancestor, and the ancestor of chimps, gorillas, lemurs, etc. (Sanders, 2021) (Wilson et al., 2021, Abstract). THIS little mammal is the real "Adam" and "Eve."
Purgatorius (Eating Fruit in Tree) (Sander, 2021):
Update (11/12/22):
Adapa and Adam:
I think I've found another solution to this problem. Instead of Adam and Even being the progenitors of the entire human race, they could have been patriarchal and matriarchal figures, or a king and queen in a better context, of a group of people that would become known as the Semites.
Adapa and Adam:
I think I've found another solution to this problem. Instead of Adam and Even being the progenitors of the entire human race, they could have been patriarchal and matriarchal figures, or a king and queen in a better context, of a group of people that would become known as the Semites.
Originally, I found a couple of articles that led me to believe that Eve could been a metaphorical figure for the goddess Asherah. I'm changing my stance to having Adam and Eve probably being real people, but mainly as chosen leaders of the Semites in the Fertile Crescent (Eden or the Garden of Eden). In the Mesopotamian religion, there was a man named Adapa. Created by the God Enki/Ea, he was positioned as the leader of the human race and the chief priest of Eridu (with that in mind, I believe that he was the leader of the people in the Mesopotamian region only). Adapa has been equated with Adam from the Torah/Old Testament, and has even been called the forerunner to the character of Adam. I believe that Adam being Adapa is a very good hypothesis, and his wife would have been Chava/"Eve" (Coulter and Turner, 2013, p. 14; Eve being Chavah on pp. 123 and 176). Coulter and Turner also say that Eve's story is similar to Adapa's (p. 176). As for being kicked out of Eden, that's a story for another time.
So, for my new conclusion, I believe that Adapa/Adam and Chava/Eve could have been two real human beings that lived in the Fertile Crescent in the Middle East. They were leaders of a group of people that would soon become the Semites.
Links:
Sanders (2021):
https://www.documentarymania.com/player.php?title=Did+Darwin+kill+God
200,000 years ago:
Smithsonian Museum of Natural History:
"Homo heidelbergensis":
http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/homo-heidelbergensis
Kabwe 1:
http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/fossils/kabwe-1
Encyclopaedia Britannica ("Homo heidelbergensis"):
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Homo-heidelbergensis
Mounier et al., (2009) ("Abstract"):
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0047248409000025?via%3Dihub
Homo erectus:
Smithsonian Museum of Natural History ("Homo erectus"):
http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/homo-erectus
Rizal et al., (2019) (Abstract):
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-019-1863-2
Encyclopaedia Britannica ("Homo erectus," "African Finds"):
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Homo-erectus/Fossil-evidence
"Ghost" Species of Hominin:
Shawna Williams (2020):
https://www.the-scientist.com/news-opinion/remnants-of-extinct-hominin-species-found-in-west-african-genomes-67101
Carly Cassella (2020):
https://www.sciencealert.com/the-ghost-of-an-unknown-extinct-hominid-has-been-found-in-a-modern-human-genome
Durvasula and Sankararaman (2020) ("Abstract"):
https://advances.sciencemag.org/content/6/7/eaax5097
Ann Gibbons (2020):
https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2020/02/mysterious-ghost-populations-had-multiple-trysts-human-ancestors#
Bethan Ackerley (2020):
https://www.newscientist.com/article/2233488-dna-analysis-of-people-in-west-africa-reveals-ghost-human-ancestor/
Western Africa Map:
https://images.app.goo.gl/Sh2mVYXSXFD3TArq7
Ferdinand Bada (2018):
https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/which-countries-are-part-of-western-africa.html
Brian Handwerk (2020):
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/homo-erectrus-australopithecus-saranthropus-south-africa-180974571/
Herries et al., (2020) ("Abstract"):
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32241925
Maps:
Northern Africa Map:
https://images.app.goo.gl/K6RgpPjBMQvTn5ME6
Nina Larbi (2019):
http://www.mountholyokenews.com/oped/2019/4/9/north-africans-identities-as-african-should-be-respected
Northwestern Africa:
https://images.app.goo.gl/4mditDYrja2zeGsj9
Interkart ("Northwestern Africa Map"):
https://www.interkart.de/en/national-geographic-maps/atlas-wall-maps/africa/northwestern-africa.html#
Map of the Region of Africa:
https://www.thelocalafricanews.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/48-African-Union-regions_Web_EN.jpg
The Local Africa News (2018):
https://www.thelocalafricanews.com/how-african-is-northern-africa/
Gorillas:
Primate Info Net ("Gorilla," "Social Organization and Behavior," p. 2):
http://pin.primate.wisc.edu/factsheets/entry/gorilla/behav
Smithsonian National Zoo ("Western Lowland Gorilla," "Social Structure," p. 3-4):
https://nationalzoo.si.edu/animals/western-lowland-gorilla
Mathematical Possibilities of Just Two Humans Creating Our Population:
Rohde et al., (2004) ("Abstract"):
https://www.nature.com/articles/nature02842
Supplementary Materials:
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/48ac/fefc93b65bc7313ce072be946ad6132a33bc.pdf
ScienceDaily (2004):
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/09/040930122428.htm
Ann Gauger (2019):
https://evolutionnews.org/2019/10/new-bio-complexity-paper-we-could-have-come-from-two/?fbclid=IwAR34Dh6jgg_G6Z7C_1aki1NlwlX3_hlHgpykHRz6UjWr1_tP_2ZJiEt9Ias
Primordial Definition:
Merriam-Webster ("Primordial"):
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/primordial
Hossjer and Gauger (2019):
https://bio-complexity.org/ojs/index.php/main/article/view/BIO-C.2019.1/BIO-C.2019.1
Stonestreet and Morris (2019):
https://www.christianpost.com/voice/genetics-disproves-adam-and-eve-not-so-fast.html
Sanders (2021):
https://news.berkeley.edu/story_jump/our-earliest-primate-ancestors-rapidly-spread-after-dinosaur-extinction/
Wilson et al., (2021) (Abstract):
https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.210050
"Did Darwin Kill God?." Conor Cunningham. BBC. 2009:https://www.documentarymania.com/player.php?title=Did+Darwin+kill+God
Learn (2016) (P. 4-7):
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/no-mitochondrial-eve-not-first-female-species-180959593/
David K. Jordan. "'Mitochondrial Eve': III: Lose Ends: B. What Happened to All of Eve's Contemporaries?" University of California San Diego:
http://pages.ucsd.edu/~dkjordan/resources/clarifications/MitochondrialEve.html#happened
Main Page:
http://pages.ucsd.edu/~dkjordan/index.html
University of California San Diego:
Images:
"The Fall of Man." Hendrick Goltzius. 1616. The National Gallery of Art:
https://www.nga.gov/collection/art-object-page.95659.html
Mitochondria:
Megan Knight (Retrieved on 2019):
Image:
https://images.app.goo.gl/9oRwJUESYcBCMhyr5
Article:
https://www.news-medical.net/life-sciences/Mitochondria-Overview.aspx
Y Chromosome:
Genetics Home Reference (2019):
https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/chromosome/Y
Dr. Zara Kassam (2018):
Image:
https://images.app.goo.gl/YX3R5SGHN1sUwJBA7
Article:
https://www.drugtargetreview.com/news/31614/leukaemia-y-chromosome-gene/
Genesis (NIV):
"The Fall of Man." Hendrick Goltzius. 1616. The National Gallery of Art:
https://www.nga.gov/collection/art-object-page.95659.html
Mitochondria:
Megan Knight (Retrieved on 2019):
Image:
https://images.app.goo.gl/9oRwJUESYcBCMhyr5
Article:
https://www.news-medical.net/life-sciences/Mitochondria-Overview.aspx
Y Chromosome:
Genetics Home Reference (2019):
https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/chromosome/Y
Dr. Zara Kassam (2018):
Image:
https://images.app.goo.gl/YX3R5SGHN1sUwJBA7
Article:
https://www.drugtargetreview.com/news/31614/leukaemia-y-chromosome-gene/
Genesis (NIV):
Chapter 1:
Chapter 2:
https://biblehub.com/niv/genesis/2.htm
Chapter 4:
https://biblehub.com/niv/genesis/4.htm
Chapter 5:
https://biblehub.com/niv/genesis/5.htm
Chapter 6:
https://biblehub.com/niv/genesis/6.htm
Chapter 4:
https://biblehub.com/niv/genesis/4.htm
Chapter 5:
https://biblehub.com/niv/genesis/5.htm
Chapter 6:
https://biblehub.com/niv/genesis/6.htm
Chromosomal Adam:
Papers:
Ann Gibson (1997) (Y Chromosome Shows that Adam was African) ("Abstract"):
https://science.sciencemag.org/content/278/5339/804
Ann Gibson (1997) (The Women's Movement) ("Abstract"):
https://science.sciencemag.org/content/278/5339/805?_ga=2.241546434.135036183.1585073637-183701916.1565285659
Ann Gibson (1997) (Y Chromosome Shows that Adam was African) ("Abstract"):
https://science.sciencemag.org/content/278/5339/804
Ann Gibson (1997) (The Women's Movement) ("Abstract"):
https://science.sciencemag.org/content/278/5339/805?_ga=2.241546434.135036183.1585073637-183701916.1565285659
100-200,000 years ago:
G. David Poznik et al., (2013):
"Abstract":
"Abstract":
https://science.sciencemag.org/content/341/6145/562
Full Paper:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4032117/#!po=31.2500
Full Paper:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4032117/#!po=31.2500
Paolo Francalacci et al., (2013):
"Abstract":
"Abstract":
https://science.sciencemag.org/content/341/6145/565
Full Paper:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5500864/#!po=31.2500
Cruciani et al., (2011) ("Abstract" and pg. 6):
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3113241/
Full Paper:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5500864/#!po=31.2500
Cruciani et al., (2011) ("Abstract" and pg. 6):
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3113241/
338,000 years ago:
Fernando L. Mendez et al., (2013):
https://www.cell.com/ajhg/fulltext/S0002-9297(13)00073-6
Link 2:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23453668
208,300 years ago:
Elhaik et al., (2014) ("Abstract"):
https://carta.anthropogeny.org/libraries/bibliography/extremely-ancient-chromosome-isnt-forensic-bioinformatic-investigation-albert
Link 2:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24448544
Articles:
Ewen Callaway (2017) (p. 7):
https://www.nature.com/news/oldest-homo-sapiens-fossil-claim-rewrites-our-species-history-1.22114
Link 2:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23453668
208,300 years ago:
Elhaik et al., (2014) ("Abstract"):
https://carta.anthropogeny.org/libraries/bibliography/extremely-ancient-chromosome-isnt-forensic-bioinformatic-investigation-albert
Link 2:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24448544
Articles:
Ewen Callaway (2017) (p. 7):
https://www.nature.com/news/oldest-homo-sapiens-fossil-claim-rewrites-our-species-history-1.22114
Ewen Callaway (2013):
https://www.nature.com/news/genetic-adam-and-eve-did-not-live-too-far-apart-in-time-1.13478
Mary Bechman (2000) (Pg. 4):
https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2000/11/eden-chronicles-tracking-y-chromosome-adam
Mitochondrial Eve:
Papers:Mary Bechman (2000) (Pg. 4):
https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2000/11/eden-chronicles-tracking-y-chromosome-adam
Mitochondrial Eve:
200,000 years ago:
Rebecca L. Cann et al., (1987):
https://www.nature.com/articles/325031a0
Ann Gibson (1997) (Y Chromosome Shows that Adam was African) ("Abstract"):
https://science.sciencemag.org/content/278/5339/804
Chan et al., (2019) ("Abstract"):
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-019-1714-1
Ann Gibson (1997) (The Women's Movement) ("Abstract"):
https://science.sciencemag.org/content/278/5339/805?_ga=2.241546434.135036183.1585073637-183701916.1565285659
Articles:
The Economist (2019):
https://www.economist.com/science-and-technology/2019/10/31/where-was-eden-perhaps-in-a-sun-baked-salt-plain-in-botswana
Brandon Specktor (2019):
https://www.livescience.com/mitochondrial-eve-first-human-homeland.html
Ann Gibson (1997) (Y Chromosome Shows that Adam was African) ("Abstract"):
https://science.sciencemag.org/content/278/5339/804
Chan et al., (2019) ("Abstract"):
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-019-1714-1
100-200,000 years ago:
G. David Poznik et al., (2013):
"Abstract":
"Abstract":
https://science.sciencemag.org/content/341/6145/562
Full Paper:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4032117/#!po=31.2500
Full Paper:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4032117/#!po=31.2500
Paolo Francalacci et al., (2013):
"Abstract":
"Abstract":
https://science.sciencemag.org/content/341/6145/565
Full Paper:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5500864/#!po=31.2500
Gene Flow:Full Paper:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5500864/#!po=31.2500
Ann Gibson (1997) (The Women's Movement) ("Abstract"):
https://science.sciencemag.org/content/278/5339/805?_ga=2.241546434.135036183.1585073637-183701916.1565285659
Articles:
The Economist (2019):
https://www.economist.com/science-and-technology/2019/10/31/where-was-eden-perhaps-in-a-sun-baked-salt-plain-in-botswana
Brandon Specktor (2019):
https://www.livescience.com/mitochondrial-eve-first-human-homeland.html
Callaway (2013):
Siddique (2013):
Parry (2010):
https://www.livescience.com/10015-age-confirmed-eve-mother-humans.html
Ewen Callaway (2017) (pg. 7):
https://www.nature.com/news/oldest-homo-sapiens-fossil-claim-rewrites-our-species-history-1.22114
Archaic/Early Modern and Modern Homo sapiens:
Ewen Callaway (2017) (pg. 7):
https://www.nature.com/news/oldest-homo-sapiens-fossil-claim-rewrites-our-species-history-1.22114
Archaic/Early Modern and Modern Homo sapiens:
Modern-Day/Anatomically Modern Homo sapiens:
Carly Cassella (2020) (P. 12):
https://www.sciencealert.com/the-ghost-of-an-unknown-extinct-hominid-has-been-found-in-a-modern-human-genome
Carly Cassella (2020) (P. 12):
https://www.sciencealert.com/the-ghost-of-an-unknown-extinct-hominid-has-been-found-in-a-modern-human-genome
Brigitte M. Holt (2015) (Ch. 13):
University of Utah (2005):
Michael Hopkin (2005):
Archaic/Early Modern Homo sapiens:
Christopher J. Bae (2013):
https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/archaic-homo-sapiens-103852137/
Jebel Irhoud Skull:
Perhaps, or maybe not, early humans, but still from Africa:
Christopher J. Bae (2013):
https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/archaic-homo-sapiens-103852137/
Jebel Irhoud Skull:
Perhaps, or maybe not, early humans, but still from Africa:
Ewen Callaway (2017) "Genomic evidence"):
Michael Greshko (2017) (Final p.):
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2017/06/morocco-early-human-fossils-anthropology-science/
Not a anatomically-modern human being:
Chris Stringer (2016) (Pg. 5):
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4920294/
315-286,000 years old:
Richter et al., (2017) ("Abstract"):
https://www.nature.com/articles/nature22335
Hublin et al., (2017) ("Abstract"):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317834148_New_fossils_from_Jebel_Irhoud_Morocco_and_the_pan-African_origin_of_Homo_sapiens
Sale Skull:
Encyclopaedia Britannica ("Sale"):
https://www.britannica.com/place/Sale-paleoanthropological-site-Morocco
Homo heidelbergensis:315-286,000 years old:
Richter et al., (2017) ("Abstract"):
https://www.nature.com/articles/nature22335
Hublin et al., (2017) ("Abstract"):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317834148_New_fossils_from_Jebel_Irhoud_Morocco_and_the_pan-African_origin_of_Homo_sapiens
Sale Skull:
Encyclopaedia Britannica ("Sale"):
https://www.britannica.com/place/Sale-paleoanthropological-site-Morocco
Smithsonian Museum of Natural History:
"Homo heidelbergensis":
http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/homo-heidelbergensis
Kabwe 1:
http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/fossils/kabwe-1
Encyclopaedia Britannica ("Homo heidelbergensis"):
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Homo-heidelbergensis
Mounier et al., (2009) ("Abstract"):
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0047248409000025?via%3Dihub
Homo erectus:
Smithsonian Museum of Natural History ("Homo erectus"):
http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/homo-erectus
Rizal et al., (2019) (Abstract):
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-019-1863-2
Encyclopaedia Britannica ("Homo erectus," "African Finds"):
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Homo-erectus/Fossil-evidence
"Ghost" Species of Hominin:
Shawna Williams (2020):
https://www.the-scientist.com/news-opinion/remnants-of-extinct-hominin-species-found-in-west-african-genomes-67101
Carly Cassella (2020):
https://www.sciencealert.com/the-ghost-of-an-unknown-extinct-hominid-has-been-found-in-a-modern-human-genome
Durvasula and Sankararaman (2020) ("Abstract"):
https://advances.sciencemag.org/content/6/7/eaax5097
Ann Gibbons (2020):
https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2020/02/mysterious-ghost-populations-had-multiple-trysts-human-ancestors#
Bethan Ackerley (2020):
https://www.newscientist.com/article/2233488-dna-analysis-of-people-in-west-africa-reveals-ghost-human-ancestor/
Western Africa Map:
https://images.app.goo.gl/Sh2mVYXSXFD3TArq7
Ferdinand Bada (2018):
https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/which-countries-are-part-of-western-africa.html
Brian Handwerk (2020):
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/homo-erectrus-australopithecus-saranthropus-south-africa-180974571/
Herries et al., (2020) ("Abstract"):
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32241925
Maps:
Northern Africa Map:
https://images.app.goo.gl/K6RgpPjBMQvTn5ME6
Nina Larbi (2019):
http://www.mountholyokenews.com/oped/2019/4/9/north-africans-identities-as-african-should-be-respected
Northwestern Africa:
https://images.app.goo.gl/4mditDYrja2zeGsj9
Interkart ("Northwestern Africa Map"):
https://www.interkart.de/en/national-geographic-maps/atlas-wall-maps/africa/northwestern-africa.html#
Map of the Region of Africa:
https://www.thelocalafricanews.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/48-African-Union-regions_Web_EN.jpg
The Local Africa News (2018):
https://www.thelocalafricanews.com/how-african-is-northern-africa/
Gorillas:
Primate Info Net ("Gorilla," "Social Organization and Behavior," p. 2):
http://pin.primate.wisc.edu/factsheets/entry/gorilla/behav
Smithsonian National Zoo ("Western Lowland Gorilla," "Social Structure," p. 3-4):
https://nationalzoo.si.edu/animals/western-lowland-gorilla
Mathematical Possibilities of Just Two Humans Creating Our Population:
Rohde et al., (2004) ("Abstract"):
https://www.nature.com/articles/nature02842
Supplementary Materials:
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/48ac/fefc93b65bc7313ce072be946ad6132a33bc.pdf
ScienceDaily (2004):
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/09/040930122428.htm
Ann Gauger (2019):
https://evolutionnews.org/2019/10/new-bio-complexity-paper-we-could-have-come-from-two/?fbclid=IwAR34Dh6jgg_G6Z7C_1aki1NlwlX3_hlHgpykHRz6UjWr1_tP_2ZJiEt9Ias
Primordial Definition:
Merriam-Webster ("Primordial"):
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/primordial
Hossjer and Gauger (2019):
https://bio-complexity.org/ojs/index.php/main/article/view/BIO-C.2019.1/BIO-C.2019.1
Stonestreet and Morris (2019):
https://www.christianpost.com/voice/genetics-disproves-adam-and-eve-not-so-fast.html
Name Translations:
Adam:
Bible Hub. "Strong's Hebrew: 120. adam":
https://biblehub.com/str/hebrew/120.htm
Bible Texts. "the Hebrew word adam - man, human beings, or Adam? as used in both Gen 1 & Gen 2, and as translated as: man, human beings, person, or Adam." “Hebrew Dictionary Definitions of the Hebrew word adam.” "adam-Bible dictionaries":
http://www.bibletexts.com/terms/heb-adam.htm#adam-dict
Bible Hub. "Strong's Greek: 121. Adam":
https://biblehub.com/str/hebrew/121.htm
Eve:
Dr. Eli Lizorkin-Eyzenberg. "What Does Eve Mean in Hebrew?" Israel Bible Weekly. July 4th, 2018:
https://weekly.israelbiblecenter.com/eve-mean-hebrew/
Aish.com. "Ask the Rabbi." "Eve's Name":
https://www.aish.com/atr/Eves_Name.html?mobile=yes
Bible Hub. "Strong's Greek: 20296. Heua":
https://biblehub.com/str/greek/2096.htm
The Catholic Youth Bible (New American Bible Revised Edition):
https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Catholic_Youth_Bible/XaXNygAACAAJ?hl=en
Adapa:
Coulter and Turner (2013):
P. 14 (Adapa):
https://books.google.com/books/about/Encyclopedia_of_Ancient_Deities.html?id=sEIngqiKOugC&printsec=frontcover&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_entity&hl=en&gl=US#v=snippet&q=Adapa&f=false
PP. 123 and 176 (Chavah and Eve):
